Payment for ecosystem services (PES): a holistic tool for sustainable forest management-a case study from Pakistan / Pagamento por serviços ecossistêmicos (PES): uma ferramenta holística para o manejo florestal sustentável: um estudo de caso do Paquistão

Abstract Economic valuation of ecosystem services is a new concept in forest management. Economic valuation provides basis for payment for ecosystem services (PES). Therefore, objective of this study was to evaluate eco-tourism and carbon stock services of the Maindam valley, District Swat, Pakistan. For the carbon stock calculation, a sample size of 155 plots of 0.1 hectare (Ha) was taken using preliminary survey at 95% confidence interval and 10% allowable error. The data for tourism services was collected from owners of all the hotels, 100 tourists and key informants of the area at 10% sampling intensity on pretested questionnaire for twenty years period (1997-2017). Results showed that Miandam valley has carbon stock worth US$ 16,306,000 while the value of eco-tourism was US$ 1,578,458 on annual basis. The results also showed that trend of tourism has drastically declined after the 9/11 incident for foreigners and locals and the situation was further deteriorated during the era of Talibanization or militancy from 2008-2011. This study recommends implementation of PES strategy at the rate of 5%, thus a total of US$ 78,922 can be earned from eco-tourism and carbon crediting in the study area annually, which could play important role in sustainable forest management.

Resumo A valoração econômica dos serviços ecossistêmicos é um novo conceito no manejo florestal. A avaliação econômica fornece base para o pagamento por serviços ecossistêmicos (PES). Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o ecoturismo e os serviços de estoque de carbono do vale de Miandam, distrito Swat, Paquistão. Para o cálculo do estoque de carbono, um tamanho de amostra de 155 parcelas de 0,1 hectare (ha) foi tirado, usando pesquisa preliminar com intervalo de confiança de 95% e erro admissível de 10%. Os dados para serviços de turismo foram coletados de proprietários de todos os hotéis, 100 turistas e informantes-chave da área em 10% de intensidade de amostragem em questionário pré-testado para um período de 20 anos (1997-2017). Os resultados mostraram que o vale de Miandam tem estoque de carbono no valor de US$ 16.306.000, enquanto o valor do ecoturismo foi de US$ 1.578.458 anualmente. Os resultados também mostraram que a tendência do turismo diminuiu drasticamente para estrangeiros e locais após o incidente de 11 de Setembro, e a situação se agravou ainda mais durante a era da talibanização ou militância de 2008-2011. Este estudo recomenda a implementação da estratégia de PES na taxa de 5%, portanto um total de US$ 78.922 pode ser ganho com ecoturismo e crédito de carbono na área de estudo anualmente, o que pode desempenhar um papel importante no manejo florestal sustentável.

El compostaje de cáscara de Musa paradisiaca L. para la producción de biogás y biometano como estrategia de preservación de la salud ambiental / Musa paradisiaca L. husk composting for biogas and biomethane production as a strategy for preserving environmental health

A medida que a se avanza en el siglo XXI, los sistemas de energía deben alejarse de los combustibles fósiles y aumentar la capacidad de las energías renovables si se quieren cumplir los objetivos de temperaturas máximas del Acuerdo de París. Sin embargo, debido a los desafíos en la adopción de tecnologías bajas en carbono, ciertas áreas de los sistemas energéticos globales son difíciles de controlar y descarburar. Por otra parte, el compostaje es una de las prácticas de gestión de residuos orgánicos más importantes que se puede utilizar para lograr la sostenibilidad del suelo y del medio ambiente. El compost tiene un mínimo impacto en algunas emisiones, y puede ayudar a controlar la huella de carbono y limitar los efectos ambientales negativos de los métodos de eliminación de desechos más deficientes. La investigación tuvo por objetivo determinar la calidad de producir biogás y biometano a partir de la cáscara de plátano (Musa paradisiaca L.). Metodológicamente se desarrolló una investigación aplicada, con nivel de investigación de tipo experimental. Las cáscaras de plátano se colectaron de la planta de compostaje de la Municipalidad Provincial de Leoncio Prado, Perú. De la muestra se prepararon cinco sub muestras para la producción de biogás y cinco muestras adicionales para la producción de biometano. Los sistemas mostraron una producción de 0,067 m3 BG/Kg ST de biogás y 0,059 m3CH4/Kg ST de biometano, que generó subproductos como el biol y biosol. Estos resultados presentaron una baja toxicidad al ser sometidos a pruebas germinativas, concluyéndose que solo el 11,5% de la cáscara introducida al biorreactor se degrado y de esta fracción solo el 2,8% se convirtió en biogás(AU)

As progress is being made in the 21st century, energy systems must move away from fossil fuels and increase the capacity of renewable energies if you want to meet the maximum temperatures objectives of the Paris Agreement. However, due to the challenges in the adoption of low carbon technologies, certain areas of global energy systems are difficult to control and decarbure. On the other hand, composting is one of the most important organic waste management practices that can be used to achieve soil and environmental sustainability. The compost has a minimum impact on some emissions, and can help control the carbon footprint and limit the negative environmental effects of the most deficient waste removal methods. The research aimed to determine the quality of producing biogas and biomethane from the banana peel (Musa paradisiaca L.). Methodologically, an applied investigation was developed, with experimental research level. The banana peels were collected from the composting plant of the Provincial Municipality of Leoncio Prado, Peru. From the sample, five sub samples were prepared for the production of biogas and five additional samples for biomethane production. The systems showed a production of 0.067 m3 bg/kg ST of biogas and 0.059 m3ch4/kg ST of biomethane, which generated by -products such as biol and biosol. These results presented a low toxicity when they were subjected to germinative evidence, concluding that only 11.5% of the shell introduced into the bioreactor was degraded and of this fraction only 2.8% became biogas(AU)

Organic matter compartments in an Ultisol under integrated agricultural and livestock production systems in the Cerrado / Compartimentos da matéria orgânica em Argissolo sob sistemas integrados de produção agropecuária no Cerrado

Integrated agricultural production systems have the potential to increase organic matter content, which is reflected in the soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) concentrations. Here, we evaluated the C and N stocks and its compartments in a typical distro cohesive yellow Ultisol under the no-till (NT) and crop-livestock integration (CLI) systems, in eastern Maranhão. Five areas with different management strategies were evaluated, more specifically, one area was managed under the NT system in succession for 14 years (soybean/millet), three areas had different CLI system adoption histories (i.e., CLI was adopted 2, 4, or 8 years prior to sample collection); and finally, one area consisted of native Cerrado (savannah) vegetation. Soil samples were collected at depths of 0-0.10, 0.10-0.20, 0.20-0.30, and 0.30-0.50 m,to analyze the content and total stocks of carbon (C) and its compartments (physical and chemical), N content, soil microbial biomass, and basal respiration. Results revealed higher content and stock of C and N in areas with CLI. The principal humic substance reported was humin, and higher concentrations of C associated with minerals were present in areas under more recent CLI adoption (2 and 4 years). We demonstrated that the adoption of CLI, even if recent, leads to immediate increases in the concentrations of C and its fractions as a result of using forage crops. NT for 14 years and CLI for 8 years exhibited higher levels of C management and higher soil biological activity due to the greater stability of these systems.

Os sistemas integrados de produção agropecuária possuem potencial de incrementar a matéria orgânica, com reflexos nas concentrações de carbono e de nitrogênio no solo. O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar estoques de carbono e nitrogênio e seus compartimentos em um Argissolo Amarelo Distrocoeso típico sob plantio direto e integração lavoura-pecuária no Leste maranhense. Os manejos avaliados foram: sistema de plantio direto em sucessão há 14 anos (soja/milheto), três áreas com diferentes históricos de sucessão com a adoção do sistema integração lavoura-pecuária (ILP), sendo dois, quatro e oito anos, além de uma área de Cerrado nativo. Foram coletadas amostras de solo nas profundidades de 0,00-0,10; 0,10-0,20; 0,20-0,30; 0,30-0,50 metros para análise de teores e estoques totais de carbono (C) e de seus compartimentos (físico e químico), nitrogênio (N) e da biomassa microbiana do solo e respiração basal. Os resultados revelam maior teor e estoque de C e N nas áreas com ILP. A substância húmica predominante foi a humina e maiores concentrações do carbono associado a minerais estiveram presentes na área sob ILP mais recente (dois e quatro anos). A adoção da ILP, mesmo que recente, proporciona incrementos imediatos nas concentrações de C e suas frações em função do emprego de forrageiras. O plantio direto há 14anos e ILP há oito anos são sistemas com maior índice de manejo do C, como, também, apresentam maior atividade biológica do solo, devido à maiores estabilidade destes sistemas.

Almacenamiento de carbono en sistemas agroforestales en los Llanos Orientales de Colombia / Carbon storage in agroforestry systems in Colombia's Eastern Plains

Introducción: Los cultivos de café, cacao y pasturas para la ganadería son actividades agropecuarias de interés económico en Colombia. Cuando estas actividades se desarrollan bajo sistemas agroforestales (SAF) promueven la conservación e incrementan la fijación de carbono y, por ende, la mitigación del cambio climático. Objetivo: El estudio estimó el almacenamiento de carbono en la biomasa aérea, necromasa y carbono orgánico del suelo bajo SAF con cacao (SAF cacao), SAF con café (café SAF), sistemas silvopastoriles (SSP) y bosque en el municipio de Mesetas, Meta (Colombia). Métodos: Se establecieron 44 parcelas de muestreo, en donde se tomaron medidas dasométricas a individuos con un diámetro del tronco a la altura del pecho (dap) ≥ 2.5 cm (latizales, fustales y fustales grandes), cuyos valores fueron transformados a carbono con modelos de biomasa y una fracción de carbono default. En los tres sistemas agropecuarios, se contó el número de árboles de cacao, café, plantas asociadas y se identificó el tipo de uso (maderable, alimento, combustión). Resultados: El almacenamiento de carbono presentó diferencias significativas (P < 0.0001) entre usos del suelo. La mayor acumulación se encontró en bosque, con 216.6 t C ha-1, superando en 59, 72 y 73 % a SAF cacao, SSP y SAF café, respectivamente. Fabaceae, Lauraceae y Primulaceae presentaron el mayor almacenamiento de carbono. En SAF cacao, la mayor acumulación de carbono fue encontrada en especies para alimento humano; en SAF café y SSP, el mayor almacenamiento fue presentado en las especies maderables. Conclusión: Estos resultados resaltan el potencial de almacenamiento de carbono en los sistemas productivos de mayor importancia en el departamento del Meta, lo cual es importante para el diseño de estrategias que permitan integrar acciones de mitigación de emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y promover la economía campesina local.

Introduction: Coffee, cocoa crops and pastures for livestock are agricultural activities of economic interest in Colombia. When these activities are developed under agroforestry systems (AFS), they promote conservation and increase carbon fixation and, therefore, climate change mitigation. Objective: The study estimated carbon storage in aboveground biomass, necromass and soil organic carbon under SAF with cocoa (SAF cocoa), SAF with coffee (SAF coffee), silvopastoral systems (SPS) and forest in Mesetas, Meta (Colombia). Methods: Forty-four sampling plots were established, where dasometric measurements were taken from individuals with a trunk diameter at breast height (dbh) ≥ 2.5 cm (saplings, trees and large trees), whose values were transformed to carbon with biomass models and a default carbon fraction. In the three agricultural systems, the number of cocoa and coffee trees and associated plants was counted, and the type of use (timber, food, combustion) was identified. Results: Carbon storage showed significant differences (P < 0.0001) among land uses. The highest accumulation was found in forest, with 216.6 t C ha-1, exceeding in 59, 72 and 73 % to SAF cocoa, SSP and SAF coffee, respectively. The botanical families Fabaceae, Lauraceae and Primulaceae presented the greatest carbon storage. In SAF cocoa, the greatest accumulation of carbon was found in species for human food; in SAF coffee and SSP, the greatest storage was presented by timber species. Conclusion: These results highlight the potential for carbon storage in the most important productive systems in the Meta department, which is important for designing strategies that allow for integrating actions to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and to promote the local peasant economy.

Does Dairy Liquid Manure Complementary to Mineral Fertilization Increase Grain Yield Due to Changes in Soil Fertility?

Abstract The main destination of manure is the application to croplands near livestock farms as nutrient source to enhance crop production. The aim of this study was to define the dairy liquid manure (DLM) dose, complementary to the mineral fertilizer, for higher crops yield, in rotation black oat-maize-wheat-soybean, and to identify the soil chemical variables improved by the manure that most affect the yield, in long-term. The experiment was conducted from 2006 to 2015, in no-tillage system, at Paraná State, Brazil. The soil was a Latossolo Bruno Distrófico típico, clayey texture. The treatments consisted by doses of DLM (0, 60, 120 and 180 m3 ha-1 year-1), complementary to the mineral fertilizer (applied in the same amount for all DLM doses). Crops yield and soil chemical variables were evaluated at six depths (0-10; 10-20; 20-30; 30-40; 40-50 and 50-60 cm). The DLM application increased the yield of all crops, but not in all harvests. The DLM even applied at soil surface improved the soil chemical variables in deep layers, resulting in high positive correlation between yield and exchange bases, P, Zn and Mn contents, and high negative correlation with Ca/Mg ratio and potential acidity at depth 0-10 cm. The DLM dose, complementary to the mineral fertilization, that provided higher soybean and wheat yield was about 130 m3 ha-1 year-1, while for maize this dose was equal to or greater than 180 m3 ha-1 year-1. This effect was not attributed to a single chemical variable but the improvement of all chemical variables evaluated.

Soil Microbiological Attributes Under Ecological Restoration Technologies in Subtropical Forest

Abstract To accelerate the recovery of degraded environments, it is necessary to use ecological restoration techniques, which require validation according to the ecosystem conditions where are implemented. This work aimed to evaluate soil microbiological attributes under different ecological restoration technologies in a subtropical forest. The study was conducted at UTFPR-DV, southwest of Paraná, in an ecotone between Mixed Ombrophilous Forest and Semideciduous Seasonal Forest and on an Oxisol. In December 2010, a tillage area of at least 17 years old was isolated and the passive restoration, tree planting and nucleation treatments were installed in 40x54 m plots and four replications. In November 2018 the soil was sampled in these plots and in a native forest area as a reference. There were calculated soil organic carbon content (OCC) and microbiological attributes such as microbial biomass N and C (NMIC and CMIC), basal respiration, fungal spore content and the metabolic (qCO2) and microbial quotient (MICq). It can be concluded that nucleation technology can restore soil microbiological attributes but has not yet reached the conditions of a natural environment. Passive restoration is not a good technology for restoring soil microbiological attributes. The higher contents of CMIC, NMIC, OCC, MICq and fungal spores in the soil under native forest compared to ecological restoration technologies indicate that eight years of adoption of these techniques have not yet been enough to fully recover soil microbiological activity.

Stocks and Distribution of Soil Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulfur in an Integrated Crop-Livestock System Treated with Phosphates

Abstract Conservation agriculture practices can contribute to changes in soil nutrient dynamics over time. This experiment evaluated the changes in total stocks and distribution of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur concentrations in soil, during 60 months, in an integrated crop-livestock system (ICLS) due to anticipated fertilization of sources and doses phosphates applied in soil surface. The experiment was conducted over a period of five years, under Typic Dystrudept, using a randomized block design, in an incomplete factorial scheme (3×3+1), with four replications. Treatments consisted of three sources of P [triple superphosphate (TSP), rock phosphate - Arad (RP) and magnesium thermophosphate (MTP)], along with four doses of P (0, 60, 120 and 180 kg ha-1 P2O5 total). Samples of soil were collected in 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, 15-20 and 20-30 cm layers at 24, 36, 48 and 60 months after beggining of experiment where the following chemical attributes were evaluated: (i) total organic carbon (TOC); (ii) total nitrogen Kjeldahl (TNK); (iii) available P by ion exchange resin method (P-IER); and (iv) available S-SO4 2-. The ICLS conditions provided increased total stocks and concentrations of TOC, TNK, P-IER and S-SO4 2- over time. The applications of different phosphates had no influence on soil TOC concentrations during the five years of experimentation. The concentrations of TNK, P-IER and S-SO4 2- showed an increase in different layers of soil, with the application of sources and doses of P. The P fertilization practice that was anticipated can consist of an efficient management of soil fertility, using properly managed conservation systems.

Edaphic macrofauna in degradation of animal and vegetable residues / Macrofauna edáfica no processo de vermicompostagem de resíduos animais e vegetais

Abstract The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability to degrade organic matter by edaphic macrofauna (worms), carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio and hydrogenation potential (pH) during the vermicomposting process in different organic residues. The treatments were constituted by organic residues of animal origin (bovine, ovine and equine manure) and vegetable (herb-checkmate and coffee drag), which were conditioned in plastic pots with a capacity of 10 liters, comprising five treatments in a completely randomized experimental design, with five replications. Were inoculated 150 earthworms of the species Eisenia foetida, into each plot. After 87 days, the evaluation of the multiplication of the earthworms was carried out, through its manual count and its cocoons. At the beginning and at the end of the experiment, the samples were submitted to analysis of humidity at 60 °C, pH, volumetric density, chemical analysis of macronutrients and C/N ratio. There was a dominance of worms and cocoons in the process of vermicomposting in the residues of ovine manure and herb-checkmate. The macronutrients (P, K and Mg) and C/N ratio were higher in the vegetal residues, while for N higher values were found in ovine manure and coffee drag treatments, and for Ca higher value among treatments was observed in the coffee drag treatment at the end and the lowest value at initiation. The results obtained in this study demonstrate the importance of the edaphic macrofauna to the vermicomposting process, since it allows more information about its influence on the continuity of soil organic matter decomposition processes.

Resumo Este estudo objetivou avaliar a capacidade de degradar a matéria orgânica pela macrofauna edáfica (minhocas), a relação carbono/nitrogênio (C/N) e o potencial hidrogeniônico (pH), durante o processo da vermicompostagem em diferentes resíduos orgânicos. Os tratamentos foram constituídos por resíduos orgânicos de origem animal (esterco bovino, ovino e equino) e vegetal (resíduo de erva-mate e borra-de-café), os quais foram acondicionados em vasos plásticos com capacidade de 10 litros, compondo cinco tratamentos em delineamento experimental inteiramente casualisado, com cinco repetições. Foram inoculadas 150 minhocas da espécie Eisenia foetida, em cada recipiente. Após 87 dias, foi realizada a avaliação da multiplicação das minhocas, através da sua contagem manual e seus casulos. Os resíduos foram submetidos, ao inicio e ao final do experimento, a análises de umidade a 60 °C, pH, densidade volumétrica, análise química de macronutrientes e relação C/N. Houve uma dominância de minhocas e casulos no processo da vermicompostagem nos resíduos de esterco ovino e erva-mate. Observou-se para os macronutrientes (P, K e Mg) e para a relação C/N uma maior quantidade nos resíduos vegetais, enquanto que para N valores maiores foram encontrados nos tratamentos esterco ovino e borra-de-café, e para Ca o maior valor entre os tratamentos foi observado no tratamento com borra de café ao final e o menor valor no inicio. Os resultados obtidos neste estudo demonstram a importância da macrofauna edáfica para o processo da vermicompostagem por possibilitar maiores informações sobre sua influência na continuidade dos processos de decomposição da matéria orgânica.

Ash content, carbon and C/N ratio in paricá in function of NPK fertilization

ABSTRACT Fertilization in areas of forest plantations is needed to supplement plants´ nutritional needs until harvest. An experiment was performed to check the influence of fertilization on levels of ash, carbon and C/N relation in Schizolobium amazonicum. Soil liming was performed and fertilization occurred after 15 days of incubation. S. amazonicum seedlings were produced and submitted to fertilization with N, P and K: N = 0, 40, 80 and 120 kg ha-1; P2O5 = 0, 50, 100 and 200 kg ha-1; K2O = 0, 50, 100 and 200 kg ha-1. The plants were measured after 180 days. The seedlings of 20 treatments with the highest increase in height and diameter were transplanted to the field. Soil was fertilized and limestone was spread; seedlings were distributed into randomized blocks, with six replications. After 12 months, the plants were removed to determine ash, organic carbon, C/N relation contents. The ashes were submitted to digestion to determine nutrient concentrations. Fertilization influenced the levels of ash and organic carbon and C/N relation in S. amazonicum. Results indicate that the species has a potential for energy production.

Bacterial degradation of dissolved organic matter released by Planktothrix agardhii (Cyanobacteria) / Degradação bacteriana da matéria orgânica dissolvida liberada por Planktothrix agardhii (Cyanobacteria)

Abstract Although Planktothrix agardhii often produces toxic blooms in eutrophic water bodies around the world, little is known about the fate of the organic matter released by these abundant Cyanobacteria. Thus, this study focused in estimating the bacterial consumption of the DOC and DON (dissolved organic carbon and dissolved organic nitrogen, respectively) produced by axenic P. agardhii cultures and identifying some of the bacterial OTUs (operational taxonomic units) involved in the process. Both P. agardhii and bacterial inocula were sampled from the eutrophic Barra Bonita Reservoir (SP, Brazil). Two distinct carbon degradation phases were observed: during the first three days, higher degradation coefficients were calculated, which were followed by a slower degradation phase. The maximum value observed for particulate bacterial carbon (POC) was 11.9 mg L-1, which consisted of 62.5% of the total available DOC, and its mineralization coefficient was 0.477 day-1 (t½ = 1.45 days). A similar pattern of degradation was observed for DON, although the coefficients were slightly different. Changes in the OTUs patterns were observed during the different steps of the degradation. The main OTUs were related to the classes Alphaproteobacteria (8 OTUs), Betaproteobacteria (2 OTUs) and Gammaproteobacteria (3 OTUs). The genus Acinetobacter was the only identified organism that occurred during the whole process. Bacterial richness was higher at the slower degradation phase, which could be related to the small amounts of DOM (dissolved organic matter) available, particularly carbon. The kinetics of the bacterial degradation of P. agardhii-originated DOM suggests minimal loss of DOM from the Barra Bonita reservoir.

Resumo Embora Planktothrix agardhii frequentemente forme florações tóxicas em corpos d'água pelo mundo, pouco ainda se sabe sobre o destino da matéria orgânica liberada por essa abundante Cyanobacteria. Assim, este estudo foi focado na estimativa do consumo bacteriano do carbono orgânico dissolvido (DOC) e nitrogênio orgânico dissolvido (DON) produzido por culturas axênicas de P. agardhii e identificação de algumas das unidades taxonômicas operacionais (OTUs) bacterianas envolvidas no processo. Ambos a linhagem de P. agardhii e o inóculo bacteriano foram amostrados do reservatório eutrófico de Barra Bonita (SP, Brasil). Foram observadas duas fases distintas da degradação do DOC: durante os três primeiros dias, coeficientes mais altos de degradação foram calculados, que foram então seguidos por uma fase mais lenta da degradação do carbono. O valor máximo calculado para o carbono bacteriano particulado (POC) foi de 11,9 mgL-1, o que equivale a aproximadamente 62,5% do DOC disponível para consumo, e o seu coeficiente de mineralização foi de 0,477 dia-1 (t1/2 = 1,45 dias). Um padrão similar de degradação foi observado para DON, embora os coeficientes sejam ligeiramente diferentes. Foram observadas mudanças nos padrões de OTUs durante os diferentes passos da degradação. As principais OTUs foram relacionadas às classes Alphaproteobacteria (8 OTUs), Betaproteobacteria (2 OTUs) e Gammaproteobacteria (3 OTUs). O gênero Acinetobacter foi o único organismo identificado que ocorreu durante todo o processo. A maior riqueza bacteriana foi observada durante a fase lenta de degradação, o que pode estar relacionado às pequenas quantidades de matéria orgânica dissovida (DOM) disponíveis, particularmente o carbono. A cinética da degradação bacteriana da MOD de P. agardhii, quando comparada ao tempo de retenção do reservatório, sugere que existe uma perda mínima após sua liberação em Barra Bonita.

Carbon and nutrient stocks of three Fabaceae trees used for forest restoration and subjected to fertilization in Amazonia

ABSTRACT Amazonia is crucial to global carbon cycle. Deforestation continues to be one of the main causes of the release of C into the atmosphere, but forest restoration plantations can reverse this scenario. However, there is still diffuse information about the C and nutrient stocks in the vegetation biomass. We investigated the carbon and nutrient stocks of Fabaceae trees (Inga edulis, Schizolobium amazonicum and Dipteryx odorata) subjected to fertilization treatments (T1 - no fertilization; T2 - chemical; T3 - organic; and T4 - organic and chemical fertilization) in a degraded area of the Balbina Hydroelectric Dam, AM - Brazil. As an early successional species, I. edulis stocked more C and nutrients than the other two species independent of the fertilization treatment, and S. amazonicum stocked more C than D. odorata under T1 and T4. The mixed species plantation had the potential to stock 4.1 Mg C ha-1 year-1, while I. edulis alone could stock 9.4 Mg C ha-1 year-1. Mixing species that rapidly assimilate C and are of significant ecological and commercial value (e.g., Fabaceae trees) represents a good way to restore degraded areas. Our results suggest that the tested species be used for forest restoration in Amazonia.

First Assessment of Carbon Stock in the Belowground Biomass of Brazilian Mangroves

ABSTRACT Studies on belowground roots biomass have increasingly reported the importance of the contribution of this compartment in carbon stock maintenance in mangrove forests. To date, there are no estimates of this contribution in Brazilian mangrove forests, although the country has the second largest area of mangroves worldwide. For this study, trenches dug in fringing forests in Guaratiba State Biological Reserve (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) were used to evaluate the contribution of the different classes of roots and the vertical stratification of carbon stock. The total carbon stock average in belowground roots biomass in these forests was 104.41 ± 20.73 tC.ha−1. From that, an average of 84.13 ± 21.34 tC.ha−1 corresponded to the carbon stock only in fine roots, which have diameters smaller than 5 mm and are responsible for over 80% of the total belowground biomass. Most of the belowground carbon stock is concentrated in the first 40 cm below the surface (about 70%). The root:shoot ratio in this study is 1.14. These estimates demonstrate that the belowground roots biomass significantly contributes, more than 50%, to the carbon stock in mangrove forests. And the mangrove root biomass can be greater than that of other Brazilian ecosystems.

Global patterns of aboveground carbon stock and sequestration in mangroves

ABSTRACT In order to contribute to understand the factors that control the provisioning of the ecosystem service of carbon storage by mangroves, data on carbon stock and sequestration in the aboveground biomass (AGB) from 73 articles were averaged and tested for the dependence on latitude, climatic parameters, physiographic types and age. Global means of carbon stock (78.0 ± 64.5 tC.ha-1) and sequestration (2.9 ± 2.2 tC.ha-1.yr-1) showed that mangroves are among the forest ecosystems with greater capacity of carbon storage in AGB per area. On the global scale, carbon stock increases toward the equator (R²=0.22) and is dependent on 13 climatic parameters, which can be integrated in the following predictive equation: Carbon Stock in AGB = -16.342 + (8.341 x Isothermality) + (0.021 x Annual Precipitation) [R²=0.34; p < 0.05]. It was shown that almost 70% of carbon stock variability is explained by age. Carbon stock and sequestration also vary according to physiographic types, indicating the importance of hydroperiod and edaphic parameters to the local variability of carbon stock. By demonstrating the contribution of local and regional-global factors to carbon stock, this study provides information to the forecast of the effects of future climate changes and local anthropogenic forcings on this ecosystem service.

Kinetic study and modeling of biosurfactant production using Bacillus sp

Background: Surfactants are one of the most important raw materials used in various industrial fields as emulsifiers, corrosion inhibitors, foaming agents, detergent products, and so on. However, commercial surfactant production is costly, and its demand is steadily increasing. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of typical strains of Bacillus sp. to produce biosurfactants through fermentation. It also included the investigation of the effect of initial glucose concentration and the carbon to nitrogen ratio. Results: The biosurfactant yield was in the range of 1­2.46 g/L at initial glucose concentrations of 10­70 g/L. The optimum fermentation condition was achieved at a carbon to nitrogen ratio of 12.4, with a decrease in surface tension of up to 27 mN/m. Conclusions: For further development and industrial applications, the modified Gompertz equation is proposed to predict the cell mass and biosurfactant production as a goodness of fit was obtained with this model. The modified Gompertz equation was also extended to enable the excellent prediction of the surface tension.

Ecuaciones alométricas de biomasa aérea para la estimación de los contenidos de carbono en manglares del Caribe Colombiano / Tree above-ground biomass allometries for carbon stocks estimation in the Caribbean mangroves in Colombia

ResumenLa distribución de carbono azul en los ecosistemas, entre los que se cuentan los manglares, es poco conocida en comparación con los grandes avances que existen para los ecosistemas forestales terrestres, a pesar de que su alta productividad y capacidad de almacenamiento de carbono es reconocida. Este estudio, tuvo por objetivo, analizar la biomasa aérea de las especies Rhizophora mangle y Avicennia germinans en el ecosistema de manglar localizado en el área marina protegida denominada Distrito de Manejo Integrado (DMI) Cispatá-Tinajones-La Balsa en el Caribe colombiano. Para ello, con la debida autorización oficial, se cosecharon 30 individuos de cada especie, con el fin de generar modelos alométricos que permitieran estimaciones de biomasa aérea con bajos niveles de incertidumbre. Los resultados indican que la biomasa aérea de los bosques de manglar del Caribe colombiano en el DMI, es de 129.69 ± 20.24 Mg/ha, es decir, que almacenan 64.85 ± 10.12 MgC/ ha. Teniendo en cuenta que el DMI presenta un área de 8 570.9 ha en bosques de manglar, se estima que el carbono total potencialmente almacenado por este ecosistema es de aproximadamente 555 795.93 MgC. Las ecuaciones generadas en este estudio se pueden considerar como una opción alternativa para la evaluación de las reservas de carbono en la biomasa aérea de los bosques de manglar en del Caribe colombiano, dado que otros modelos disponibles para la estimación de la biomasa aérea no discriminan a los bosques de manglar, a pesar de ser ecosistemas particulares. Los modelos pueden ser empleados como una opción para apoyar las estrategias de conservación de bosques y la reducción de emisiones. En general, el potencial de almacenamiento de carbono en los bosques de manglar del Caribe colombiano, es importante, y podría posesionar al país en la conservación de bosques y la reducción de emisiones a través de la conservación del carbono azul almacenado.

AbstractThe distribution of carbon in “Blue Carbon” ecosystems such as mangroves is little known, when compared with the highly known terrestrial forests, despite its particular and recognized high productivity and carbon storage capacity. The objective of this study was to analyze the above ground biomass (AGB) of the species Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia germinans from the Marine Protected Area of Distrito de Manejo Integrado (DMI), Cispatá-Tinajones-La Balsa, Caribbean Colombian coast. With official authorization, we harvested and studied 30 individuals of each species, and built allometric models in order to estimate AGB. Our AGB results indicated that the studied mangrove forests of the DMI Colombian Caribbean was of 129.69 ± 20.24 Mg/ha, equivalent to 64.85 ± 10.12 MgC/ha. The DMI has an area of 8 570.9 ha in mangrove forests, and we estimated that the total carbon potential stored was about 555 795.93 Mg C. The equations generated in this study can be considered as an alternative for the assessment of carbon stocks in AGB of mangrove forests in Colombia; as other available AGB allometric models do not discriminate mangrove forests, despite being particular ecosystems. They can be used for analysis at a more detailed scale and are considered useful to determine the carbon storage potential of mangrove forests, as a country alternative to support forest conservation and emission reduction strategies. In general, the potential of carbon storage from Colombian Caribbean mangrove forests is important and could promote the country leadership of the “blue carbon” stored. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (2): 913-926. Epub 2016 June 01.

Biomasa y carbono total almacenado en robledales del sur de los Andes Colombianos: aportes para el enfoque REDD+ a escala de proyectos / Biomass and total carbon in oak forests of Southern Colombian Andes: contributions to the REDD+ project-wide approach

ResumenLas estimaciones de carbono en bosques tropicales, es muy importante para entender el papel de estos ecosistemas en el ciclo de este elemento. Este conocimiento permite apoyar y soportar las decisiones y la formulación de estrategias de mitigación y adaptación para reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEI). Sin embargo, cuantificaciones detalladas de las existencias totales de carbono en los bosques montanos tropicales son limitadas, a pesar de su importancia científica y para el manejo de los ecosistemas (e.g. REDD+). Cuarenta y cuatro parcelas se establecieron en un paisaje heterogéneo compuesto por bosques maduros ubicados en el sur de los Andes colombianos. El objetivo fue identificar el papel de estos ecosistemas en el almacenamiento de carbono, evaluar la contribución de los reservorios analizados (biomasa aérea, biomasa subterránea y necromasa), y realizar contribuciones al enfoque de REDD+ en la escala de proyecto. En cada parcela se midieron todos los árboles, palmas y helechos con diámetro (D) ≥ 15 cm. En el caso de las palmas, se midió la altura de 40 % de los individuos, siguiendo el Protocolo Nacional de Colombia para estimar la biomasa y el carbono en los bosques naturales. Ecuaciones alométricas nacionales fueron utilizadas para estimar la biomasa aérea, y una ecuación general propuesta por el IPCC, fue utilizada para la estimación de la biomasa subterránea. La biomasa aérea de las palmas se estimó mediante un modelo local desarrollado para bosques montanos y premontanos. La necromasa se estimó para los árboles muertos en pie y los detritos gruesos. En este último caso, se midió la longitud y los diámetros de los extremos de las piezas. Las muestras para las estimaciones de densidad de madera, se recogieron en el campo y se analizaron en el laboratorio. El carbono promedio total se estimó en 545.9 ± 84.1 Mg/ ha (± SE). La biomasa aérea contribuyó con 72.5 %, la biomasa subterránea con 13.6 %, y la necromasa con 13.9 %. La principal conclusión de este estudio, es que los bosques montanos tropicales almacenan grandes cantidades de carbono, similares a las almacenadas por los bosques tropicales de tierras bajas. Además, se observó que la inclusión de otros compartimientos podría contribuir en más del 20 % de total del almacenamiento de carbono, lo que indica que las estimaciones que sólo incluyen la biomasa aérea, subestiman en gran medida las reservas de carbono en los ecosistemas forestales. Por tal razón, se sugiere incluir otros compartimientos en las estimaciones de carbono para iniciativas o proyectos REDD+.

AbstractCarbon estimations in tropical forests are very important to understand the role of these ecosystems in the carbon cycle, and to support decisions and the formulation of mitigation and adaptive strategies to reduce the greenhouse emission gases (GHG). Nevertheless, detailed ground-based quantifications of total carbon stocks in tropical montane forests are limited, despite their high value in science and ecosystem management (e.g. REDD+). The objective was to identify the role of these ecosystems as carbon stocks, to evaluate the contribution of the pools analyzed (aboveground biomass, belowground biomass and necromass), and to make contributions to the REDD+ approach from the project scale. For this study, we established 44 plots in a heterogeneous landscape composed by old-grown forests located in the Southern Colombian Andes. In each plot, all trees, palms and ferns with diameter (D) ≥ 15 cm were measured. In the case of palms, the height was measured for 40 % of the individuals, following the Colombia National Protocol to estimate biomass and carbon in natural forests. National allometric equations were used to estimate aboveground biomass, and a global equation proposed by IPCC was used for belowground biomass estimation; besides, palms' aboveground biomass was estimated using a local model. The necromass was estimated for dead standing trees and the gross debris. In the latter case, the length and diameters of the extremes in the pieces were measured. Samples for wood density estimations were collected in the field and analyzed in the laboratory. The mean total carbon stock was estimated as 545.9 ± 84.1 Mg/ha (± S.E.). The aboveground biomass contributed with 72.5 %, the belowground biomass with 13.6 %, and the necromass with 13.9 %. The main conclusion is that montane tropical forests store a huge amount of carbon, similar to low land tropical forests. In addition, the study found that the inclusion of other pools could contribute with more than 20 % to total carbon storage, indicating that estimates that only include the aboveground biomass, largely underestimate carbon stocks in tropical forest ecosystems. These results support the importance of including other carbon pools in REDD+ initiatives' estimations. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (1): 399-412. Epub 2016 March 01.

Microbiological and faunal soil attributes of coffee cultivation under different management systems in Brazil / Atributos microbiológicos e da fauna do solo com diferentes sistemas de cultivo de cafeeiro no Brasil

Abstract Brazil is the biggest coffee producer in the world and different plantation management systems have been applied to improve sustainability and soil quality. Little is known about the environmental effects of these different management systems, therefore, the goal of this study was to use soil biological parameters as indicators of changes. Soils from plantations in Southeastern Brazil with conventional (CC), organic (OC) and integrated management systems containing intercropping of Brachiaria decumbens (IB) or Arachis pintoi (IA) were sampled. Total organic carbon (TOC), microbial biomass carbon (MBC) and nitrogen (MBN), microbial activity (C-CO2), metabolic quotient (qCO2), the enzymes dehydrogenase, urease, acid phosphatase and arylsulphatase, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) colonization and number of spores and soil fauna were evaluated. The greatest difference between the management systems was seen in soil organic matter content. The largest quantity of TOC was found in the OC, and the smallest was found in IA. TOC content influenced soil biological parameters. The use of all combined attributes was necessary to distinguish the four systems. Each management presented distinct faunal structure, and the data obtained with the trap method was more reliable than the TSBF (Tropical Soils) method. A canonic correlation analysis showed that Isopoda was correlated with TOC and the most abundant order with OC. Isoptera was the most abundant faunal order in IA and correlated with MBC. Overall, OC had higher values for most of the biological measurements and higher populations of Oligochaeta and Isopoda, corroborating with the concept that the OC is a more sustainable system.

Resumo O Brasil é o maior produtor mundial de café e diferentes sistemas de manejo têm sido aplicados para melhorar a sustentabilidade e a qualidade do solo. Pouco se conhece sobre os efeitos ambientais desses sistemas de manejo, assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi utilizar parâmetros biológicos do solo como indicadores de mudanças nos sistemas. Foram amostrados, na região sudeste do Brasil, solos com cultivo convencional (CC), orgânico (OC) e sistema integrado de cultivo consorciado com Brachiaria decumbens (IB) ou com Arachis pintoi (IA) na entrelinha. Foram avaliados o carbono orgânico total (TOC), carbono e nitrogênio da biomassa microbiana (MBC e MBN), atividade microbiana (C-CO2), quociente metabólico (qCO2), as enzimas desidrogenase, urease, fosfatase ácida e arilsulfatase, a colonização e número de esporos de fungos micorrízicos arbusculares (AMF) e a fauna do solo. A maior diferença entre os sistemas de manejo foram verificadas no teor de matéria orgânica do solo. O maior teor de TOC foi encontrado no OC, e o menor teor encontrado no sistema IA. O teor de TOC influenciou os parâmetros biológicos e a diferenciação da fauna do solo. O uso combinado de todos os atributos foi necessário para diferenciar os quatro sistemas de cultivo. Cada manejo apresentou estruturas diferentes de fauna, e dados obtidos com o método de armadilhas tipo pitfall foi mais confiável do que o método TSBF (Solos Tropicais). A análise de correlação canônica mostrou que Isopoda foi correlacionado com TOC e a ordem mais abundante em OC. Isoptera foi a ordem da fauna mais abundante em IA e foi correlacionada com MBC. Em geral, OC apresentou os maiores valores para a maioria dos atributos biológicos, inclusive para abundância de indivíduos de Oligochaeta e Isopoda, corroborando com o conceito de que OC é um sistema mais sustentável.

Impacto da degradação sobre o estoque total de carbono de florestas ripárias na Amazônia Oriental, Brasil / Impact of degradation on carbon stock of riparian forests in the eastern Amazon, Brazil

Riparian forests provide essential ecosystem services to humanity, but are being degraded at an accelerated rate in the Amazon. This study aimed to quantify carbon stocks above and below ground in riparian forests with four levels of degradation (very high, high, medium and low) in two watersheds (Pepital Rio and Rio Grande) in Alcântara, Eastern Amazon. Twenty-four permanent plots of 1,000 m2 were installed, and vegetation (trees, shrubs, herbs, lianas and palms), necromass (litter, dead trees, branches) and soil (0-20 cm and roots) were sampled. The biomass was estimated using allometric models (vegetation with dbh> 1 cm and dead trees) and destructively (herbaceous, litterfall, branches, roots). The total carbon stock in the most conserved riparian forests ranged between 88 and 202 Mg(C) ha-1. Degradation significantly reduced carbon stock in all compartments (up to 97% in above-ground biomass, up to 91% of necromass, and up to 47% in soils). In conserved areas, the aboveground biomass is the largest compartment of the total carbon stock (> 70%), mainly due to large trees. The carbon stock in the different compartments are strongly correlated with each other and with the canopy opening. The incorporation of these results in regional carbon models can assist in the implementation and review of the Brazilian Forest Act, particularly in the restoration of riparian forests where agriculture is consolidated.

As florestas ripárias provêem serviços ecossistêmicos essenciais à humanidade, mas estão sendo degradadas em um ritmo acelerado na Amazônia. Esse estudo teve como objetivo quantificar os estoques de carbono acima e abaixo do solo de florestas ripárias com quatro níveis de degradação (muito alta, alta, média e baixa) em duas microbacias (Rio Pepital e Rio Grande) em Alcântara (Maranhão), na Amazônia Oriental. Foram instaladas 24 parcelas permanentes de 1.000 m2, onde a vegetação (árvores, arbustos, herbáceas, lianas e palmeiras), a necromasa (serapilheira, árvores mortas, galhos) e o solo (0-20 cm e raízes) foram amostrados. A biomassa foi estimada mediante modelos alométricos (vegetação com DAP > 1 cm e árvores mortas) e de forma destrutiva (herbáceas, serapilheira, galhos finos, raízes). O estoque total de carbono nas florestas ripárias mais conservadas variou entre 88 e 202 Mg(C) ha-1. A degradação reduziu significativamente o estoque de carbono em todos os compartimentos (até 97% na biomassa viva acima do solo, até 91% de necromassa e até 47% no solo). Nas áreas conservadas, a biomassa viva acima do solo tem a maior participação no estoque total de carbono (> 70%), principalmente devido às árvores de grande porte. O estoque de carbono nos diferentes compartimentos estão fortemente relacionados entre si e também com a abertura do dossel. A incorporação desses resultados em modelos regionais de carbono pode auxiliar na implementação e revisão do Código Florestal Brasileiro, em particular na restauração das florestas ripárias onde a agricultura está consolidada.

Occurrence of culturable soil fungi in a tropical moist deciduous forest Similipal Biosphere Reserve, Odisha, India

Similipal Biosphere Reserve (SBR) is a tropical moist deciduous forest dominated by the species Shorea robusta. To the best of our knowledge their rich biodiversity has not been explored in term of its microbial wealth. In the present investigation, soil samples were collected from ten selected sites inside SBR and studied for their physicochemical parameters and culturable soil fungal diversity. The soil samples were found to be acidic in nature with a pH ranging from of 5.1–6.0. Highest percentage of organic carbon and moisture content were observed in the samples collected from the sites, Chahala-1 and Chahala-2. The plate count revealed that fungal population ranged from 3.6 × 104–2.1 × 105 and 5.1 × 104–4.7 × 105 cfu/gm of soil in summer and winter seasons respectively. The soil fungus, Aspergillus niger was found to be the most dominant species and Species Important Values Index (SIVI) was 43.4 and 28.6 in summer and winter seasons respectively. Among the sites studied, highest fungal diversity indices were observed during summer in the sites, Natto-2 and Natto-1. The Shannon-Wiener and Simpson indices in these two sites were found to be 3.12 and 3.022 and 0.9425 and 0.9373 respectively. However, the highest Fisher’s alpha was observed during winter in the sites Joranda, Natto-2, Chahala-1 and Natto-1 and the values were 3.780, 3.683, 3.575 and 3.418 respectively. Our investigation revealed that, fungal population was dependent on moisture and organic carbon (%) of the soil but its diversity was found to be regulated by sporulating species like Aspergillus and Penicillium.

Uso de la herramienta Google Trends para estimar la incidencia de enfermedades tipo influenza en Argentina / Using Google Trends to estimate the incidence of influenza-like illness in Argentina / Uso da ferramenta Google Trends para estimar a incidência de síndrome gripal na Argentina

El objetivo del presente estudio fue hallar un modelo para estimar la incidencia de enfermedades tipo influenza (ETI), a partir de los términos de búsqueda relacionados recolectados por el Google Trends (GT). Los datos de vigilancia de ETI para los años 2012 y 2013 se obtuvieron del Sistema Nacional de Vigilancia de la Salud de Argentina. Las búsquedas de Internet se obtuvieron de la base de datos del GT, usando 6 términos: gripe, fiebre, tos, dolor de garganta, paracetamol e ibuprofeno. Se desarrolló un modelo de regresión de Poisson a partir de datos del año 2012, y se validó con datos del 2013 y resultados de la herramienta Google Flu Trends (GFT). La incidencia de ETI del sistema de vigilancia presentó fuertes correlaciones con las estimaciones de ETI del GT (r = 0,927) y del GFT (r = 0,943). Sin embargo, el GFT sobreestimó el pico de incidencia por casi el doble, mientras que el modelo basado en el GT subestimó el pico de incidencia por un factor de 0,7. Estos resultados demuestran la utilidad del GT como un complemento para la vigilancia de la influenza.

The aim of this study was to find a model to estimate the incidence of influenza-like illness (ILI) from the Google Trends (GT) related to influenza. ILI surveillance data from 2012 through 2013 were obtained from the National Health Surveillance System, Argentina. Internet search data were downloaded from the GT search engine database using 6 influenza-related queries: flu, fever, cough, sore throat, paracetamol, and ibuprofen. A Poisson regression model was developed to compare surveillance data and internet search trends for the year 2012. The model's results were validated using surveillance data for the year 2013 and results of the Google Flu Trends (GFT) tool. ILI incidence from the surveillance system showed strong correlations with ILI estimates from the GT model (r = 0.927) and from the GFT tool (r = 0.943). However, the GFT tool overestimates (by nearly twofold) the highest ILI incidence, while the GT model underestimates the highest incidence by a factor of 0.7. These results demonstrate the utility of GT to complement influenza surveillance.

O objetivo deste estudo foi encontrar um modelo para estimar a incidência da síndrome gripal com base nos termos de busca relacionados recolhidos pelo Google Trends (GT). Os dados de monitoramento de síndrome gripal entre 2012 e 2013 foram obtidos no Sistema Nacional de Vigilância de Saúde da Argentina. As pesquisas na Internet foram feitas baseando-se no banco de dados do GT usando 6 termos: gripe, febre, tosse, dor de garganta, paracetamol e ibuprofeno. Um modelo de regressão de Poisson foi desenvolvido valendo-se de dados de 2012. O modelo foi ajustado e validado com dados de 2013 e comparado com os resultados da ferramenta Google Flu Trends (GFT). A incidência de síndrome gripal mostrou uma forte correlação com estimativas do GT (r = 0,927) e GFT (r = 0,943). No entanto, o GFT superestimou o pico de incidência por quase o dobro, e o modelo baseado no GT subestimou o pico de incidência por um fator de 0,7. Esses resultados demonstram a utilidade do GT como um suplemento para a vigilância da influenza.